![]() Proof-of-concept coupled ocean–hurricane numerical model experiments demonstrated that the accurate representation of such ocean conditions led to an improvement in the simulated intensity of Hurricane Maria for the 3 days preceding landfall in Puerto Rico, when compared to an experiment without the assimilation of ocean observations. In situ and satellite ocean observations revealed that conditions in these areas exhibited (i) sea surface temperatures above 28☌, (ii) upper-ocean heat content above 60 kJ cm −2, and (iii) the presence of low-salinity barrier layers associated with a larger-than-usual extension of the Amazon and Orinoco riverine plumes. Major Atlantic hurricanes Irma, Jose, and Maria of 2017 reached their peak intensity in September while traveling over the tropical North Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, where both atmospheric and ocean conditions were favorable for intensification. Hatched areas in (f) highlight areas where the enthalpy flux differences are not statistically significant at the 95% confidence level, considering all simulation cycles. ![]() (f) Mean difference in enthalpy fluxes between All Obs and No DA calculated as the difference for individual cycles, and then averaged. (e) Distribution of enthalpy flux within 150 km from the center considering all six simulation cycles sampled during the 6 h period right before intensity bifurcation in each cycle for experiments All Obs (red line) and No DA (blue line) binned every 100 W m −2. (c),(d) The composite enthalpy flux for experiments All Obs and No DA, respectively, in a storm-centric coordinate system for all six simulation cycles computed during the 6 h period right before intensity bifurcation in each cycle. (a),(b) The total enthalpy flux averaged over the 24–30 h period for the simulation cycle starting at 0000 UTC for the All Obs and No DA experiments, respectively. ![]() Total ocean–hurricane surface enthalpy flux for Hurricane Maria (2017) derived from coupled experiments developed in this study.
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